History and Principle of X-ray Diffraction for Protein Structure Analysis
Laue and Bragg discovered X-ray🩻 diffraction. Genetic recombination and high-throughput screening were used to obtain protein crystals. Computer🖥️ analyses X-ray diffraction images to determine protein structure.
TEM vs light microscope: History, Break Abbe diffraction limit, Negative Staining
In TEM, Electrons replace visible light to break through Abbe diffraction limit of optical microscope 🔬. Heavy metal negative staining prevents low contrast and sample damage. TEM is more suitable for subcellular structures rather than molecules.
How does Cryo Electron Microscope determine Protein Structure? History, Vitrified Specimen, 3D reconstruction
Sample is frozen into a vitreous state at -160°C to prevent electron-induced damage and to preserve its natural state. 2D projections are reconstructed into 3D to reveal protein structure. DDD enables Cryo-EM to achieve atomic-level resolution.
What is protein structure prediction: Anfinsen Dogma, machine learning, the first reliable algorithm RaptorX
Anfinsen dogma: amino acid chain folds into protein automatically. Jinbo Xu is father of AI deep learning for protein structure prediction. Before his RaptorX armed with residual neural network, all machine learning is unreliable.
White Sugar is Sweet Addictive Poison, Refined sugar vs Natural sugar
Natural sugars wrapped in cellulose and cell membranes are absorbed slowly. Processed or refined sugars are absorbed quickly, and as addictive as drugs. Another reason is fructose metabolism is different than glucose.
Ancient South America natives were Addicted to Coca: Custom, Culture and Anecdote
Coca appears in Andean tombs, murals, and pottery. Coca was domesticated into crop by Inca empire and infiltrated into Andean culture: chewing, ritual, surgery, burial and relay station for communication and transport.
Coca leaves controlled miners to dig for silver to sustain Spanish Empire and Ming Dynasty of China
Addicted to coca (cocaine) and incapable of feeling pain, indigenous peoples of South America worked tirelessly to mine silver that contribute to prosperity of Spanish Empire and China (Ming Dynasty).
How cocaine is extracted from coca? From forgotten to a first local painkiller, anesthetic
Coca only regained interest in the 19th century because Spanish blocked news from the Americas. Niemann extracted cocaine from coca leaf. Cocaine was the first topical analgesic that revolutionized surgery.
History: How was cocaine, popular and abused in Europe, US?
In the late 19th century, cocaine was used as a local anesthetic. It was also added to food and health supplements. The government banned it because of the side effects. Cocaine made a resurgence in the late 20th century.
Effects, harm of smoking, snorting, eating, injecting cocaine, how it becomes addictive
The secret of cocaine addiction: blocking dopamine recycling. Different effects of oral administration, smoking, snorting and injection. It causes a rapid heartbeat and insufficient blood supply that is related to heart disease. Long-term excitement will result in mental illness.
History: Prevalence of Coca leaves, Coca Wine (Vin Mariani), Cocaine in Europe, US
Coca leaves are soaked in wine to dissolve cocaine. Addiction, euphoria and celebrity testimonials make coca wine (Vin Mariani) popular in Europe, US. Mixing cocaine and alcohol increases potency.
How was Coca-Cola invented? Why does it use coca leaves and remove cocaine?
Pemberton invented coke or coca cola to get rid of morphine. Because of alcohol prohibition and cocaine toxicity, he replaced them with syrup and caffeine. Soda water made coke taste better.
History: how Opium Poppy be an addictive abused drug from ancient medicine, food?
Spread of opium poppy (Europe → Arabia → China). Poppy is food and medicine for Europeans. Arabs use it for entertainment. Javanese smoked it with tobacco. Chinese people smoke opium directly, making poppy an addictive drug.
History, discovery of Morphine, Heroin; How are they Addictive?
Morphine is an extract of opium, and It is chemically modified into more addictive heroin. Similar to endorphins, they bind to opioid receptors to block pain and secrete dopamine. Opioids destroy immune, nerve systems.
Rise and Fall of Golden Triangle; How to make poppy into opium, morphine, heroin
The rise and fall of the biggest opium poppy base, Golden Triangle. Opium is the juice of dried poppy pods. Morphine is extracted from opium by lime. Morphine is acetylated by acetic acid into heroin.
How were ephedrine, amphetamine and meth discovered?
Amphetamines and meth are made from ephedrine that extracted from ephedra. They were used as stimulants during war to create super soldiers. After war, they continued to be stimulants and weight loss drugs.
Nicotiana or tobacco: Discovery, social, religious, medicinal, and Native American culture
The earliest evidence of human exposure to tobacco is from seeds dating back 12,300 years. Tobacco was smoked by Native Americans more than 3,500 years ago. Nicotine in tobacco has religious, medicinal and social uses.
5 ways for consuming tobacco: enema, chewing, drinking, snuffing, smoking
Native Americans had five ancient ways of taking nicotine and tobacco: enema, chewing, drinking, snuffing, and smoking with pipes and cigars. Except for enema and drinking, they have been preserved by modern people.
Columbus discovered the New World and tobacco
Columbus arrived in Cuba in 1492, but he thought he was in China. He soon discovered that this was a backward primitive tribe. The locals rolled tobacco and lit it to smoke.
Unique protein, DNA, Cell Membrane make: Hyperthermophilic Archaea, Thermophile is resistant to high temperature
Larger and more robust hydrophobic centers in proteins, ether bonds in the monolayer cell membrane, saturated fatty acids, and more G/C base pairs in DNA make 🦠 thermophile or hyperthermophile withstand high temperature.
Aerobic celluar Respiration vs Fermentation
Biggest difference between them: aerobic respiration uses electron transfer, proton gradient and ATPase to extract 40% energy from organic matter; alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation have no respiratory chain and can only extract 2% of energy.
Anaerobic celluar respiration vs fermentation
The biggest difference between them is that anaerobic respiration relies on ATPase and respiratory chain to produce ATP. The products of anaerobic respiration are toxic and have greenhouse effect. Substrate level phosphate produces very little ATP in fermentation.
Aerobic Cellular Respiration vs Combustion
Combustion 🔥 releases all energy (light and heat) of organic matter in a short time. Cellular aerobic respiration is a slow biochemical reaction regulated by enzymes. It makes ATP via electron transport chain, proton gradient, and ATPase.
Salt & Fresh Water On Earth: Ocean, River, Lake, Glacier
Most of the water in the Earth's hydrosphere is in the salty oceans. Glaciers and snow contain 70% of freshwater, with the rest in rivers, lakes and groundwater. Snowmelt and rain are main water source of rivers. Sometimes freshwater lakes gradually become salty.
Rabbit Starvation: Protein Poisoning: Carnivore Diet with only Lean Meat
🐰Rabbit starvation, protein poisoning. Vilhjamur Stefansson did not suffer from malnutrition after 18 months of eating an carnivore Inuit diet🥩. However, he almost died after eating rabbit meat with American Indians. Rabbit meat has too much protein and too little fat, which causes protein poisoning because amino group will be metabolized into toxic ammonia.
Artificial Starch: make Starch from Air by Cell Free Method, ASAP
Native starch vs. artificial starch: We describe how scientists design artificial starch synthesis pathway (ASAP). Significance: Artificial starch turns air into food, saves resources, protects the environment, and changes the world.
Difference between Starch (Amylopectin) and Glycogen?
Highly branched glycogen and starch (amylopectin) are very different. We compare the structure, function, biosynthesis and degradation of amylopectin and glycogen granule in detail.
Starch Granule 3D Structure: Lamella, Blocklets, Growth Rings
Starch granule internal 5 level structure is almost similar in all plants:double helices, lamella, blocklets and growth rings. Amylopectin constitutes the crystalline region while amylose is distributed in the amorphous region.
Starch Physical Properties: Gelatinization, Retrogradation
We introduced two important physical properties of starch: gelatinization and retrogradation which are different in amylopectin and amylose. We detail the three stages of starch gelatinization. Starch retrogradation is the recrystallization of molecules.
What is the 3D Structure of Glycogen? Whelan Model
3 level structure of glycogen granule is given in whelan model. Straight and branched chains,and left-handed helices are primary structures. Glycogen β particles and α particles are secondary and tertiary structures. We mathematically explain how glycogen granule structure evolves to accommodate rapid glucose mobilization.
Biological Function, Advantages, Distribution of Glycogen in animals
Glycogen stores and releases energy more quickly. It does not alter cell osmolality. Glycogen is mainly distributed in skeletal muscle and liver. It maintains blood sugar stability and provides short-term energy.
Fructose Powder, High Fructose Corn Syrup in Confection, Beverage
Fructose is found in natural fruits and can also be made from cornstarch. High ructose syrup is widely used in candy, candied fruit, cake and beverage: sweetener, water absorption and inhibits bacteria. We also explain why fruit becomes sweeter when refrigerated.
Glucose vs Fructose, Metabolism, too Much Fructose is Harmful
Glucose vs Fructose. We contrast fructose with glucose and describe the intake, absorption, metabolism and health impacts of fructose: uncontrolled reaction rates (reactive oxygen), easy accumulation of fat in liver, high lipid in blood and insulin resistance.
Bio wax: Beeswax, Application, Physical and Chemical Property
🐝Beeswax is one of common bio wax and it is categoried into european and oriental beeswax. It is a mixture of esters, long chain alcohols and acids. It is solid at room temperature. Beeswax is used in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
Brief Biography of Frederick Griffith, experiment
This biographical article of Frederick Griffith contains a brief introduction to the Griffith transformation experiment, with more content focusing on his education and career.
What is Gelatin: Composition & Physical Property, Thermal History
This article introduce to chemical composition of gelatin, physical properties, thermal history, gel strength (Bloom value), viscosity and gelation process.
How is gelatin made: 4 Processes for Gelatin Production
There are 4 method to produce gelatin: the acid process, the liming process, the enzymatic process and the heated in high pressure. Enzymes are used to produce gelatin faster and with better quality. The molecular weight distribution of enzyme pretreated gelatin is 10KDa, so Bloom value is higher.
Edible gelatin for Gummy Candy, Jelly Candy
Why is food grade gelatin widely used in soft jelly candy or gummy sweets🍬? Gelatin increases its elasticity and provides a good texture.
Edible Gelatin for Aerated Candy, Marshmallow, Nougat
The addition of gelatin to marshmallows, nougat allows more air to get inside, increasing the volume and providing a fluffy texture.
Collagen Peptide for Dietary Supplement
Collagen peptides in nutritional supplement 💊 can be absorbed directly, increasing food biological value and promoting growth of bones and skin.
Collagen Peptide for Cosmetic, Skin Care Product
Collagen peptides or hydrolyzed gelatin are added to cosmetics and skin care products 🧴 for water retention, skin lightening, and anti-aging skin.
Edible Gelatin for Ice Cream, Frozen Dairy Dessert
Why is gelatin used in ice cream 🍨? Food-grade gelatin acts as a foaming agent and emulsifier to give ice cream more bubbles, heat stability and fluffy texture.
Edible gelatin for yogurt, curd or curdled milk
Food grade gelatin prevents the separation of whey and casein in yogurt🥛, giving it an intact shape, silky and smooth texture.
Leaf Gelatin Sheet and Domestic Recipe
Edible gelatin is used to make gelatin sheet. They are also added to desserts🍰, puddings, mousses and creams as a foaming and thickening agent.
Gelatin as Finings, Clarifying agent for Beverage, Wine
Fruit beverage 🍹 and wine 🍻 may be cloudy after long-term storage. Food grade gelatin as clarifying agent can absorb tannin, metal ions, and proteins from beverages or juices to clarify them.
Edible Gelatin for Meat Can or Ham Sausage
Why is gelatin added to canned meat🥫? Food grade gelatin increases the slicability of meat, emulsifies fat and reduces calories.
Pharmaceutical Gelatin for Hard Capsule & Soft Capsule
90% pharmaceutical gelatin is used in the manufacture of soft capsules, softgel or hard capsules💊. The capsules protect the drug and mask the bitter taste.
Pharmaceutical Gelatin for Microcapsule
Since 1954, when the first product (carbonless copy paper) was developed, 💊microencapsulation has been widely in medicine, pesticides, food, dyes, and textiles.
Pharmaceutical Gelatin: Tissue Engineering, Regenerative Medicine
Pharmaceutical, Medical gelatin is used to make scaffolds for tissue engineering🧫. Cells can attach to the gelatin scaffold to grow and degrade it.
Pharmaceutical gelatin for Stopping Bleeding, Hemostasis
The pharmaceutical gelatin sponge absorbs blood and expands to stop bleeding. It is compatible with the body, can be degraded to amino acids